Should “God” Be Translated as “神” or “上帝”?
To clarify this question, we need to examine it from two perspectives: the history of Chinese Bible translation and the principles of translation.
One: Historical Translation Practices In the Tang Dynasty Nestorian documents, “God” was rendered as “天尊” (Heavenly Venerable), which was the expression for the supreme deity in the Chinese religious context at that time. After Roman Catholicism entered China, the Catholic Church never reached internal consensus on the Chinese translation of “God.” Eventually, the Pope ruled that neither “神” nor “上帝” should be used; instead, “天主” (Lord of Heaven) was adopted. In the Studium Biblicum Version (思高圣经), “God” is translated as “天主,” “the Lord” is mostly rendered as “上主,” and “Spirit” as “神” or “圣神,” forming a terminological system completely different from that of Protestant Bibles.
Two: The Real Beginning of Protestant Chinese Bible Translation The systematic translation of Protestant Chinese Bibles can be traced back to the early 19th century with the Marshman Version. British Baptist missionary Joshua Marshman, assisted by Joannes Lassar, completed the New Testament in 1816 and the Old Testament in 1822. Together with Morrison’s 神天圣书, these two works are known as the “Two Marshman Versions.” Both consistently used “神” to translate “God.” This was not accidental, but the result of careful consideration for fidelity to the original and semantic clarity.
Three: The Origin of the “神” vs “上帝” Debate In the 1850s, the Delegates’ Version promoted by the British and Foreign Bible Society adopted the term “上帝.” At the same time, missionaries such as Bridgman and Culbertson insisted on formal equivalence and literal translation principles. Their 1862 version continued to use “神.” The coexistence of these two renderings reflects not a difference in faith, but a divergence in translation philosophy: whether to pursue elevated Chinese literary style or to prioritize preserving the semantic flexibility of the original text.
Four: Linguistic Reasons for “神” and “上帝” Supporters of “神” argue that the Hebrew Elohim (plural) can refer both to the one Creator and generically to gods. The Chinese word “神” carries the same semantic flexibility, perfectly matching the original. Supporters of “上帝” emphasize its supreme connotation in ancient Chinese classics, such as “昊天上帝” in the Book of Documents and Book of Poetry. However, precisely because “上帝” already carried clear religious and political meanings in Chinese culture, it is not a neutral “blank” term.
Five: The Cultural Burden of “上帝” In Chinese tradition, “上帝” referred not only to the ruler of heaven but also sometimes to emperors themselves. In the Taoist system, it evolved into the Jade Emperor (玉皇上帝). Ancient China had long-standing rituals and clear functional understandings of “上帝,” which differ fundamentally from the Bible’s portrayal of God as “self-existent, the Creator of heaven and earth.” For this reason, when Matteo Ricci and others attempted to use “上帝” to refer to the God of Christianity in the late Ming Dynasty, they faced strong opposition from Confucian scholars, who argued that the two concepts were not the same. In 1715, Pope Clement XI explicitly prohibited the use of “上帝.”
Six: The Practical Dilemma of Chinese Bibles Today Even today, Chinese Bibles still have to publish both “神” versions and “上帝” versions simultaneously. This division does not stem from the original text, but from the legacy of Chinese linguistic context and historical debates.
Seven: The Translator’s Conclusion Since neither “神” nor “上帝” is a proper name exclusive to the Bible’s original text, the key to choosing between them is no longer denominational preference, but translation theory. Just as the apostle Paul did not avoid the Gentiles’ use of the term “god” in Acts 17:23, but instead revealed its true meaning. Therefore, this Bible chooses to use “神” in its translation, not to reject any tradition, but out of consideration for semantic accuracy, systematic consistency, and the avoidance of cultural misunderstanding.